GOYA :: essays research papers

     Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes was conceived on March 30, 1746, in Fuendetodos, a town in northern Spain. The family later moved to Saragossa, where Goya's dad filled in as a gilder. At fourteen years of age, Goya was apprenticed to Jose Luzan, a nearby painter. Later he went to Italy to proceed with his investigation of craftsmanship. On coming back to Saragossa in 1771, he painted frescoes for the neighborhood house of God. These works, done in the enlivening lavish custom, set up Goya's aesthetic notoriety. In 1773 he wedded Josefa Bayeu, sister of Saragossa craftsman Francisco Bayeu. The couple had numerous youngsters, however just one- - a child, Xavier- - made due to adulthood.      From 1775 to 1792 Goya painted kid's shows (plans) for the regal embroidered artwork processing plant in Madrid. This was the most significant period in his masterful turn of events. As a woven artwork planner, Goya did his first sort canvases, or scenes from regular day to day existence. The experience helped him become a sharp spectator of human conduct. He was additionally affected by neoclassicism, which was picking up favor over the lavish style. At long last, his investigation of crafted by Velazquez in the regal assortment brought about a looser, increasingly unconstrained canvas strategy.      At a similar time, Goya made his first well known progress. He got set up as a picture painter to the Spanish privileged. He was chosen for the Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1780, named painter to the lord in 1786, and made a court painter in 1789. A genuine ailment in 1792 remaining Goya forever hard of hearing. Secluded from others by his deafness, he turned out to be progressively busy with the dreams and creations of his creative mind and with basic and ironical perceptions of humanity. He advanced a strong, free new style near exaggeration. In 1799 he distributed the Caprichos, a progression of etchings caricaturizing human indiscretion and shortcoming. His representations became entering portrayals, uncovering their subjects as Goya saw them. In his strict frescoes he utilized an expansive, free-form and a hearty authenticity remarkable in strict workmanship.      Goya filled in as executive of painting at the Royal Academy from 1795 to 1797 and was designated first Spanish court painter in 1799. During the Napoleonic intrusion and the Spanish war of freedom from 1808 to 1814, Goya filled in as court painter to the French. He communicated his shock of furnished clash in The Disasters of War, a progression of obviously reasonable etchings on the monstrosities of war. They were not distributed until 1863, long after Goya's passing.

The Europeans Essay Research Paper Culture Shock free essay sample

The Europeans Essay, Research Paper Culture Daze: Eloquent European Luxury to Simple New England life All through Henry James The Europeans, the collaboration of people who have enormous social and cultural contrasts makes incredible subjects of cultural request, conformance, resistance, and love. The regard of a remote nobility, by a gathering of blue American family units exhibits the abundance of cultural development in the nineteenth century puting. Unexposed to the sentimental development of Europe, the Wentworth s fasten incredible respect for their invitees totally due to their place. In notice to Gertrude Wentworth the essayist regions, She had neer in her life addressed an outsider, and she had habitually figured it is delectable to make so ( p. 53 ) . The old quote shows the unadulterated idea of chatting with an outsider would entrance the regular people populating in America. The mode wherein the Wentworth s European cousins hold themselves in, made wonderment and obscurity in their normal inverse numbers ; as obvious in this announcement. The bright impromptu tone wherein her visitant related this dimly sentimental account appeared to Gertrude extremely strange ; yet it appeared to be other than to pass on a specific bootlicking to herself, an affirmation of her astuteness and sense of pride. She felt a twelve sentiments mixing inside her ( p. 57 ) . Considerably subsequent to heading off to the full familiar with the family unit s lost cousins, it turned out to be certain that no less respect or acquiescence would be held for them. As saw in this quote, We have a Baroness among us. That # 8217 ; s what we should keep up catch of! ( p. 141 ) . Because of the inadequacy of experience of outside progress, a basic family unit stays in a region of amazement when they take in a support of high invitees. In spite of their disparities, the characters in this book discover approaches to accommodate and process each other s life way, without surrendering their ain confidence and rules. A less cute and tolerating character, Mr. Wentworth holds a few stores toward his newly discovered nephews ; yet he despite everything attempts to keep up receptive, as demonstrated by this quote: Mr. Wentworth gazed toward his young lady, who was remaining close to him ; he drew her delicately frontward. # 8220 ; You should be cautious, # 8221 ; he said. # 8220 ; You should look after ticker. To be sure, we should all be cautious. This is an extraordinary change ; we are to be presented to impossible to miss impacts. I wear # 8217 ; Ts state they are awful. I wear # 8217 ; t judge them in progress. Be that as it may, they may perhaps do it vital that we ought to apply an extraordinary exchange of knowledge and abstinence. It will be an alternate tone ( p. 75 ) . The parity of the family unit s readiness to parcel their place with their obscure cousins shows an extraordinary level of resistance. Adding to this, is the way that the Wentworth family truly changed how it lived to amuse the Baroness. For representation, they allowed the Baroness to modify the decoration, and way inside their ain spot. A demonstration of resilience much more noteworthy yet, happens when Felix requests Gertrude Wentworth # 8217 ; s manus in marriage ; subsequent to discussing the issue the dad chooses to let the pre-marriage ceremony to occur, notwithstanding the reality he earnestly needed his young lady to get hitched another grown-up male. On the different manus, the European unexpected other than adjusts to break fit of rage in with their family. A rich and ground-breaking grown-up female, the Baroness Munster carried on with an over the top life, and persevered through the harsh conditions without permitting on to her discontentedness with the situation. In an alternate signifier of resistance, Felix, a skilled inventive individual, withstands hatred toward his whimsical and much of the time flighty business. As an impact of the divergence between the character s ways of life, a convincing subject of resilience rises. Perhaps considerably more huge than the subject of resilience, the capacity, or insufficiency of capacity of affection to surpass social and cultural hindrances reoccurs all through the book. The affection among Felix and Gertrude truly got through the saddles and limitations of social limits. Both found each other exceptionally surprising and interesting. Not only in their activities, however thoughts and emotions each piece great. An announcement about Gertrude by the essayist obviously shows this. Gertrude took a gander at him with a bizarre inclination. She was accepting of the extraordinary universe which he knew and which she did non, and how loaded with sublime blessings it must be ( p. 93 ) . The incredible bond between these two even changes the horrendous stores of Mr. Wentworth and the rest of the family unit, including her sister Queen city when she says, He thinks about you Gertrude Father, you should acknowledge ( p. 184 ) . On the contrary side, the extraordinary affec tion Robert Acton has towards Eugenia can non help her perceive her mistakes. It is by her resolution and most extreme hesitance to acknowledge the decisiveness of her marriage with the ruler, which makes her go forward America without get marrieding Robert. This move, which would hold given her a fresh start of life and felicity, is lost, and she is bound to an existence of grave singularity, surrendering happiness to keep up her cultural spot. The Europeans, shows the association of people who have tremendous social and cultural contrasts and makes ground-breaking subjects of cultural request, conformance, resistance, and love.

How to Write a Movie Review Essay

How to Write a Movie Review Essay The very first thing to know is: not only those who study in Film Academies write movie reviews. Even if your major has nothing to do with filmmaking, your professor may still ask you to write such a paper. In general, this task is about performing a thorough analysis and expressing your own opinion, not about films. That’s why you still have to know how to write a movie review essay even if you are in humanities, management, psychology or history student. Although it doesn’t look like something complex, writing a film review essay isn’t like writing a review for IMDb or for AllMovie. It may look like a quite fun thing to do, but it’s still an academic assignment, with all its features, complexity, and formatting requirements. Let’s talk about movie review as an academic paper. One more fact: if you want to skip all the information and just look at the example of a film review essay, you can skip to the 10th paragraph of this text. However, it’s highly recommended to read it thoroughly â€" there are many important and interesting facts for those who want to know how to write a movie review (guide is quite long so make sure you have at least 10 minutes to read it). What Is a Movie Review? So, if you are looking for an article about how to write an essay on a movie review, you’ve definitely come to a right place. But before learning how to write a review essay on a movie, it’s necessary to understand what actually a movie review is. As we already know, it’s an academic assignment, which you can get in your college or university. It’s a typical essay that should be written according to the academic requirements, with all references and sources cited according to the citation styles (such as APA, MLA or Harvard), with thesis statement and with deep analysis, of course. However, this assignment is usually not as difficult and mind-blowing as some other types of essays or coursework â€" we all like watching films and writing a text about films shouldn’t be a serious problem. Let’s now talk about the format of movie review â€" it’s very important to familiarize yourself with this paragraph before you start writing. The Format of Movie Review It doesn’t really matter whether you want to know how to write a movie review essay for college or for university â€" the format of this essay should be perfect anyway. When it comes to the film reviews, the format is very similar to the other types of essays. It’s very typical: as you probably know, the most popular format for academic papers is five-paragraph essay. Movie review isn’t an exception â€" five-paragraph paper about film would be a great and classic choice. Five-paragraph essay is a very “safe” way to write papers, of course. However, if you are looking for something more than that, you can use some other formats â€" but as well as five-paragraph essays are the most popular and the most effective ones, we will describe them in details a little bit later. One of the other definitions of the word “format” when it comes to essays is a citation format. Here we can’t tell you about which one should you choose â€" it depends on your major which one will you use. Thus, if you are an education or psychology student, your paper will be formatted in APA; if your major is Humanities, you’ll have to format your essay in MLA style; and Chicago style is used by the business and history students. Your professor will tell you what style you should use, and formatting isn’t actually very complex so you shouldn’t worry about it. The Elements of Movie Review As it’s a guide that tells how to write a review of a movie in essay, we will continue talking about an ideal essay. This paragraph is about small elements that you can forget about. We’ve collected the most “forgettable” of them here, so be careful and add them all! The title. We’ll explain later, but this whole work doesn’t have any sense if you don’t mention the name of the film in your paper. It may seem a little bit odd, but, well, students often make this mistake. Don’t be one of them! Actors. It may look unnecessary when it comes to deep analysis and psychologic sides of a film, but you shouldn’t forget about actors, too. Are they good? Do they show the emotions and internal conflict of a character? Looks like another odd advice, but students often forget about this element, too. Filmmaker. This element is very important â€" who is the director of the movie? What about his political views, previous films, what about his background in general? Don’t miss anything and review a filmmaker, too. That would be great. Filmmaking aspects. This point will be explained later, but what you should know is that it’s necessary, too. No one expects you to be a professional movie critic, but analyzing the cinematic structure is necessary for almost all movie reviews. Don’t know anything about scene composition and camera placement? Google it and try to become an expert. That’s how the good papers should be written. The Structure of Movie Review The structure is extremely important for those who want to know how to write a movie review essay sample. As we’ve just told, the classic structure of a good essay is 5-paragraph structure. Let’s talk about these 5 paragraphs briefly and then talk about the elements of such essay. In the very first paragraph, you have to tell the name, actors, setting, and type of the film you are going to review. During this paragraph you don’t need to go very deep â€" just the basic information like time and place the film is set in, and its genre. In the second paragraph, you will need to describe the plot of the film. Of course, no spoilers are allowed â€" you need to describe the movie to the people who don’t have an idea about its plot, so you will have to explain what’s going on without describing the ending. The third part. Here you’ll have to talk about filmmaking aspects (remember, we’ve told this in the previous paragraph?). Write about acting or direction, about the scene composition or about the quality of background music â€" choose the one you like mostly (and the one you can describe better). In the fourth paragraph, you can choose one more filmmaking aspect. What about shot structure or camera placement? Does a camera placement add drama to the scene? How does a color palette set the mood of a scene? Think about it, analyze it, and write it. If you want to know how to write a good movie review essay, pay attention to this paragraph â€" you will need to learn lots of new facts, but it definitely worth it. The fifth paragraph is the last one. It’s an ideal place for a conclusion: here you can describe your opinion and your reaction, as well as your recommendations and final thoughts. The last paragraph is extremely important because it’s the last thing a reader reads in your paper â€" and that’s why you should make it outstanding. The Steps of Writing Movie Review We are talking about how to write an essay about a movie (review), a good review â€" and to make it clearer, we’ve prepared this step-by-step guide. During the three following paragraphs we’ll tell you about writing an essay in details. Let’s go. The first step is not even related to writing. The very first step is (not including the process of selection of the topic for the paper) watching a movie. You didn’t expect to write a review of a movie without spending a few hours on it, right? Watch it one or more times, if you have enough time. Pay great attention to all the details. Then write everything you’ve understood from the film. Be very careful and don’t miss a thing at this step. Listen to experts. What do they say about the movie? Can you use their arguments and thoughts in your essay? Write the best arguments down and use them later. Read everything you can find about the film. Reviews, experts’ arguments, everything. Combine all this information with your own thoughts and opinions and write them down, too. Then start thinking about the outline of your essay. How to Write a Movie Review Outline Now, when you know how to write a movie review essay format and what to do first, let’s move to the outline. An outline is very similar to an essay draft. It’s the very first thing to write, a brief summary of what you will write in the paper. It’s not necessary to write it, but it’s recommended â€" an outline helps to organize the content of your essay better, and sometimes the tutors require to write an outline before writing an essay. It’s more convenient to write an outline when you watch a movie for the third or the second time. You should focus on the elements we’ve described earlier (actors, characters and acting, filmmaking aspects, etc.) as well as on the plot, special effects, symbols and all the other details. A good outline has introduction (you will talk about the basics like title, filmmaker and actors here), summary (here you’ll explain the concepts, the plot and everything you want to describe), analysis and conclusion. An outline is done? Let’s now go to the guide. How to Write a Movie Review Text Step-by-Step Let’s repeat what we’ve already said for a better understanding. Watch the film a few times. Make notes, analyze what you see. Write every thought about this film and read all you can find, like expert reviews (and all the other reviews). Make an outline. Start writing. Introduce the film, its title, filmmaker, and actors. Include all the information needed and don’t forget to cite the sources properly. Describe the story briefly (but avoid spoilers!). Analyze the film and all the aspects of it. Write this analysis down. Write down your thoughts about the filmmaking aspects in 3-4 paragraphs. You can look at the example of a film review for students in order to understand how this paragraph should be done. Make a conclusion. Write your final thoughts down and make this paragraph perfect. Cite the sources and format the paper according to the requirements of your college or university. There are many websites that can help you with proper citations â€" use them. Read your paper twice and correct the mistakes. Read it one more time! Tips for Writing a Movie Review We’ve collected three very important tips â€" follow them if you want to get a perfect movie review essay. Well, it’s more like “three mistakes that you must avoid”, but these mistakes are very common and non-obvious, so it would be useful for you. The first one is: focus on the film, not on the story. Many students write lots of words about the history of cinema and about the previous movies of the actors, but it doesn’t make sense. Your essay should be concise, so you don’t need to waste half of it on lengthy statements. The second tip: check the facts. Don’t rely on your memory only, check all the facts (and cite the sources of information, too). The last one: don’t forget about the structure. It can be a traditional 5-paragraph essay or something else, but the structure must be clear. Structure helps a reader to understand your ideas, and only an essay with a clear structure can get A+! Examples of Movie Review You can read many good examples of reviews anywhere in the Internet, so we won’t copy them here. Let’s just imagine that you are writing an essay about, well, Truman Show. Have you seen The Truman Show? In the first paragraph, you should write about the director and the actors. It’s easy because both Peter Welr (director) and Jim Carrey are famous at what they do, so the first paragraph shouldn’t be a problem. But don’t forget about the fact checking! The second paragraph is about the plot. A man lives a false life, and everything around is not real â€" tell the readers about it, but avoid spoilers. Go deeper, explain the context to the reader, compare this film with the other famous films of this year (with The Matrix movie, for example â€" talk about the similarities and differences, it would be quite interesting). Third paragraph â€" aspect of filmmaking. What about the acting of Jim Carrey? Is he good in a dramatic role? Talk about comedic actors who are as good in dramatic roles as Jim Carrey (maybe, Adam Sandler?). Don’t forget about Jim Carrey’s “Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind” role â€" prove that he is good in dramas, too! But don’t go too deep, because you are writing about “The Truman Show”, not about the other Carrey films. Pay attention to the supporting actors, too. In the fourth paragraph, you can talk about one more aspect of filmmaking or about anything else. Would you like to compare The Truman Show to Hamlet and show the parallels? Or, maybe you see some religious analogies? Be careful when writing about religion, of course. And do a deep analysis! The fifth paragraph is a conclusion paragraph. What is your reaction? Did you like it? What would you like to recommend to the readers? Conclusion Well, film review essays can be different. You mustn’t follow all the tips from this text â€" it’s possible to write an essay without a clear 5-paragraph structure and without an analysis; MLA/APA formats aren’t often necessary, too; you can even write a long story about the actors, history of the film or about its director. Moreover, some students write such reviews without even watching the films â€" it’s possible, too! However, we highly recommend you should follow all the advice from this article, because that’s a really good way to write a perfect film review and get your A+. Try right now and you will not be disappointed with the result!

The Presidential Debates Between John F. Kennedy and...

The Presidential Debates Between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon In the Presidential Election of 1960 John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Richard Milhouse Nixon were in a series of debates that were different from past debates. The three biggest national television networks arranged for the debate to be televised on all three stations. The Democratic candidate, Senator Kennedy from Massachusetts, and Vice President Nixon both agreed on the televised debates. Each debate was given a subject matter that the candidates agreed to correspond their answers with the subject. The first debate was for the issues concerning domestic questions, the second was centered around the area of foreign policy, and the third and fourth debates†¦show more content†¦I believe in effective governmental action. And I think thats the only way the United States is going to maintain its freedom. Its the only way that were going to move ahead. I think we can do a better job. I think were going to have to do a better job if we are going to meet the responsibilities which time and events have placed on us. We cannot turn the job over to anyone else. If the United States fails then the whole cause of freedom fails. (The First Kennedy Nixon Debate, p.2) After Kennedy was finished Smith announced for Vice President Nixon to give his opening statement. Nixon agreed with Kennedy about the U.S. having to move. Nixon compared his thoughts on Communism to a deadly competition, and that the U.S. was ahead and needed to stay that way. He disagreed with Kennedy because Kennedy said that the U.S. had been standing still, and Nixon pointed out that we had been moving. He stated that our gross national product was the highest in the world, that more schools had been built, we had developed more hydroelectric power, and the wages of people had gone up. Nixon said the programs he supported would give all Americans an equal chance for education, better medical care for elders, and more housing. He quickly shot down Kennedys programs and said that with Kennedy the U.S. would quit moving and go stagnate. One of Nixons major points was the spending of each of the political platforms. He showedShow MoreRelatedPresidential Debate Over Presidential Debates947 Words   |  4 Pagesthrottle, Kennedy and Nixon’s presidential debates of 1960 are still very much a part of American democracy. Televised presidential debates have become a backbone in an American election. Although these debates are now considered a norm in American politics, this has not always the case. Even after the first time a presidential debate was held between presidential candidates from across the aisle, it took another 16 years for another debate to occur. It is highly doubtful that either Nixon or KennedyRead MoreKennedy-Nixon Debate Analysis779 Words   |  4 PagesGanivet SPC 3540 – Persuasion October 22, 2013 Kennedy-Nixon Debate Analysis There may be more truth to the old saying, â€Å"it’s not what you say but how you say it.† On average, 93 percent of meaning found in communication comes from nonverbal messages (Mehrabian 1967). Nonverbal communication is the wordless transmission of information through body language, gestures, tone, space and appearance. The first televised presidential debate is a pivotal example of how pervasive nonverbal communicationRead MoreThe Presidential Election of 1960 Essay1986 Words   |  8 PagesThe Presidential Election of 1960 The presidential election that took place in 1960 was an interesting one. Newcomer, John F. Kennedy verses the Vice President, Richard M. Nixon. It was experimental with its trail of televised debates. It also marked the second in which a catholic had run for president and more importantly the first in which a catholic attained victory. John F. Kennedy, of Irish decent, was born in Brookline, Massachusetts on May 29,1917. He entered the Navy, after graduationRead More1960 Presidential Election: Richard Nixon vs. John F Kennedy2667 Words   |  11 Pagesï » ¿President Election 1960: Richard Nixon v. John F. Kennedy The 1960 Presidential Election was historic in its new approaches to media and televisions ability to capture the future leader of America live for the first time. Previous presidents had been listened to via radio, and seen in retrospect in movie theaters, particularly during World War II, but 1960 was the first time the majority of Americans were able to watch their future President debate his opponent and feel the immediate reactionsRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy: A Legacy Never Forgotten1377 Words   |  6 Pages Forgive your enemies, but never forget their names(Brainy Quotes). John F Kennedy said this during one of his speeches, and ironically no one will ever forget the name of the person who murdered him, Lee Harvey Oswald, an enemy of the American Public. When Kennedy ran for office, he had to seem like the more experienced candidate and appeal to all of the people. During his speeches, Kennedy engaged his audiences and they hung on his every word. However, the tragic event of his assassinationRead MoreBiography Of John F. Kennedy Essay1644 Words   |  7 Pagesclose race between both candidates Republican Richard Nixon and Democrat John F. Kennedy. Nixon and Kennedy were polar- opposites when it came to politics and even their personalities were distinct. John F. Kennedy was young and charismatic whereas Nixon was more traditional with his ways of running his campaign. John F. Kennedy prevailed with his ability to manipulate the press and use his money in ways other candidates hav e never been able to do before. Born to Joe and Rose Kennedy, John was oneRead MoreHuman Communication: Non Verbal Communication1231 Words   |  5 PagesPresident Bill Clinton. A perfect example of this skill would be during the nineteen ninety-two presidential debate between Bill Clinton and George Bush. During the second debate, an audience member asked a question on the recession. George Bush’s response was more defensive and confusing than a definitive answer (Masket). This opened the door for Clinton to win the crowd over with a well versed answer. In the debate, you will notice Clinton’s hands always line up directly with his words when he is tryingRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy s Accomplishments Essay1532 Words   |  7 PagesThe campaign for President in 1960s was one of the closest races between two candidates. In the end, John F. Kennedy, the Democratic nominee, had only been elected by a one-tenth of a percent margin against his Republican party opponent, Richard M. Nixon. John F. Kennedy ha d made specific decisions as the Democratic candidate that helped him leap to victory. Specifically, JFK’s performance during the first televised debate, decision to focus on key large states, Houston tape, and other decisionsRead MoreThe War Of A National Highway System1463 Words   |  6 PagesThe term New Frontier was used by liberal, Democratic presidential candidate John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech. Kennedy entered office with the goal to get rid of Americas poverty, and to raise America’s eyes to the stars through the space program. During the New Frontier, unemployment benefits were expanded, aid was provided to cities to improve housing and transportation, funds were allocated to continue the construction of a national highway system started under Eisenhower, a water pollutionRead MoreU.s. Government s Presidential Selection Process851 Words   |  4 PagesThere has always been a history behind everything that the U.S. government has done. So why woul d the presidential selection process be any different. When looking at this procedure, unlike the Electoral College, the nominating of the presidential candidates are not spelled out in the constitution. Seeing as the constitution was written in the late 1700’s there were no political parties to speak of. At the beginning of 1796 members of the U.S. Congress would meet informally to agree on their party’s

Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men - 1456 Words

Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men Edward Chance Tolman made many significant findings to the studies of learning, memory and motivation. Today Tolman would be considered a Cognitive Behaviorist, he developed his own brand of behaviorism which emphasized the purposeful nature behind an organisms actions, taking into account its goals and motivations. â€Å"He is best remembered for being a pioneer in cognitive psychology during a time when behaviorists dominated the field. Tolman made several significant contributions to the field of psychology. At Berkeley University he created a cognitive theory of learning, which became his trademark to the field. He thought of learning as developing from bits of knowledge and cognition about the†¦show more content†¦Methodology Tolman ran several experiments, wherein he started his rats at a specific point labeled â€Å"A† in a maze so that they had to turn right at a point labeled â€Å"B† to get food or reinforcement. There were three groups of rats in Tolmans experiment. Each group was placed in the same maze, but were given rewards at different stages and days throughout the experiment. Tolman recorded the number of errors that the rats made each day, and how long the task took them. The rats in the Control Group always received a food reward when they reached the correct end of the maze. The rats in Experimental Group 1 never received a food reward, and it seemed like they were just wandering around. The rats in Experimental Group 2 seemed to wander around just like the rats in Experimental Group 1 and found no food for the first ten days. However, on the eleventh day, when Tolman placed food in the maze it appeared as though they had learned to go to the end of the maze even without any prior reinforcement. On the twelfth day, the rats from Experimental Group 2 were doing as well as the rats from the Control Group, which had been rewarded with food from the very beginning of the test. This demons trates that the rats were still learning and making cognitive maps of the maze even though there was no reward given. This wasShow MoreRelatedEssay on Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men1374 Words   |  6 PagesCognitive Maps in Rats and Men Edward Chance Tolman made many significant findings to the studies of learning , memory and motivation. By todays standards he would be considered a behaviorist. â€Å"He is best remembered for being a pioneer in cognitive psychology during a time when behaviorists dominated the field. Tolman made several significant contributions to the field of psychology. At Berkeley University he created a cognitive theory of learning, which became his trademark to the fieldRead MorePerspectives Paper1467 Words   |  6 PagesBehaviorists and cognitive psychologists have debated for many years. It is from these two schools of thought that dueling informational ideas have been born. Originally, behaviorism was the leading school of thought being led by John B. 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It involves, however, a few pitfalls. First, animals exist only as a concept. Otherwise, they are cuddly cats, curly dogs, cute monkeys. A rat and a puppy are both animals but our emotional reaction to them is so different that we cannot really lump them together. Moreover: what rights are we talking about? The right to life? The right to be free of pain? The right to food? Except the right

Optic Radiation In Optic Neuritis Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(105) " with acute IDON we managed to obtain the MRI informations within 30 yearss of the oncoming of symptoms\." ABSTRACT. Optic neuritis ( ON ) is defined as an redness of the ocular nervus and provides a utile theoretical account for analyzing the effects of inflammatory demyelination of white affair. The purpose of this survey was to measure the diffusion changes both of the ocular nervus and ocular radiation in patients with acute and chronic ON utilizing diffusion tensor MR imagination ( DT-MRI ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Optic Radiation In Optic Neuritis Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Thirty-three patients with idiopathic demyelinating ocular neuritis ( IDON ) and 33 gender- and age-matched healthy controls were examined with DT-MRI, T1- and T2-weighted MRI. Compared with controls, both first episode and recurrent patients with IDON in the ague phase showed significantly increased radial diffusivity ( I »aS? ) and decreased average fractional anisotropy ( FA ) in the affected nervousnesss. Reduced FA, increased I »aS? , average diffusivity ( MD ) and axial diffusivity ( I »a ) were determined in patients with subacute IDON. We found no important difference in the directional diffusivity of ocular radiation in patients whose disease had lasted less than one twelvemonth compared with healthy controls. However, important alterations of FA and I »aS? of the ocular radiation were detected in patients with disease continuance more than one twelvemonth. These consequences show the great potency and capacity of DT-MRI steps as really utile biomarkers and indexs f or the rating of myelin hurt in the ocular tract. Ocular nervus sheath dilation can be detected utilizing conventional T2-weighted MRI as has been reported by Hickman et Al. [ 2-3 ] . These two surveies assessed the effects of a individual inflammatory procedure and its attach toing demyelination in a cohort of patients during their first episode of acute one-sided ON, and reported a consistent form of alterations associated with demyelination lesions caused by redness in the ocular nervus. It is of great clinical importance to find prodromic alterations and the implicit in pathological mechanisms in patients with ON. However, since the hyperintensity can be a consequence of either redness, gliosis or axonal devolution, T2-weighted images fail to place the cause underlying the pathology. Diffusion tensor MR imagination ( DT-MRI ) , a widely recognized imagination technique that identifies the dominant way of H2O diffusion and the magnitude of anisotropy in vivo [ 4 ] has late gained more prominence for the probe of white affair cons truction, unity and connectivity. The demyelination harm in the ocular nervus and ocular radiation can be located with the aid of DT-MRI parametric quantities, such as average diffusivity ( MD ) and fractional anisotropy ( FA ) , axial diffusivity I »a and radial diffusivity I »aS? [ 5-6 ] . Postmortem scrutiny of MS patients suggests that the pathological mechanisms of ON may include a combination of redness, demyelination, astrocytosis and axonal devastation [ 7 ] . Surveies in mouse ocular nervus after retinal ischaemia have revealed elusive alterations of axons and medulla in the white affair and found I »a and I »aS? values to be associated with axonal pathological alterations [ 8-9 ] . These consequences suggest DTI to be superior compared to other conventional imaging techniques for the intent of researching the pathological mechanisms of ON. Particular challenges associated with DT-MRI of the ocular nervus are the little diameter and the nomadic constructions surrounded by CSF and orbital fat [ 10-11 ] . In visible radiation of this, and despite utilizing different sequences and protocols, it is rather singular that several different groups have reported similar values in healthy controls ( MD 1.0-1.3A-10-3 mm2/s and FA 0.4-0.6 ) and altered diffusion paramet ric quantities in chronic ON patients [ 12-13 ] . The different developmental phases of ON seem to be associated with different pathological mechanisms. The acute phase is characterized by redness and perchance demyelination of the ocular nervus. The chronic phase, on the other manus, typically shows axonal harm, perchance even axonal decease taking to wasting of the ocular nervus [ 14-16 ] . Increased MD and decreased FA were observed in a heterogenous cohort of patients with chronic ON [ 17 ] ; increased evident diffusion coefficient ( ADC ) values were found particularly in chronic patients [ 18-19 ] . A survey closely related to our work showed axial diffusivity I »a in the acute phase to supply of import predictive information and the radial diffusivity I »aS? in the subacute phase to stand for the best step correlated with the visus [ 20 ] . A recent survey proved tractography to be a method sensitive plenty to observe pathological abnormalcies in the ocular radiations after ON [ 21 ] . Understanding the connexion between altered diffusion parametric quantities of the ocular nervus, ocular radiation and ocular public presentation will supply insight into the implicit in pathological mechanisms and may be valuable for being able to foretell the ocular development after ON. The old surveies mentioned above, have shown different pathological mechanisms during the different phases of ON and we were interested to corroborate these findings by DT-MRI, a novel and sensitive methodological attack. We hypothesized that the pathological alterations happening during the unwellness might impact the diffusion indices otherwise and that we therefore might happen differing diffusion values in the ague and subacute phases of ON based on the concluding clinical diagnosing. Materials and methods Subjects Thirty-three patients who fulfilled the clinical standards set by the Optic Neuritis Study Group [ 22, 23 ] were recruited from May 2008 to December 2008 at the Beijing Tongren Hospital. The patient group consisted of 12 males and 21 females from 10 to 58 old ages ( average 31.1A ±12.8 old ages ) . The demographic informations assessed during the MRI survey is included in Table 1. Thirty-three gender- and age-matched healthy controls ( 12 male and 21 female, average ages 29.21A ±12.09 old ages ( run 10-60 old ages ) ) with normal neurological scrutiny and no history of neurological upsets served as control topics. Table 1. Demographic and clinical features of patients with IDON Characteristic No of patients Gender Male 12 Female 21 Age ( old ages ) Median 31.1 Range 10-58 Phase of disease ( casesi?†° Acute 33 First 26 Backsliding 7 Subacute 18 First 6 Backsliding 12 In this paper we will further mention to the single eyes of the topics as instances, wholly the survey included 51 instances in the patient group. In 33 instances with acute IDON we managed to obtain the MRI informations within 30 yearss of the oncoming of symptoms. You read "Optic Radiation In Optic Neuritis Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" Twenty-six of these instances were first manifestations of the acute signifier of ON, the other 7 were perennial instances. We defined the ON to be acute if a patient experience an episode of ON within 30 yearss from the oncoming of ocular symptoms [ 20, 22, 24 ] . In 18 instances with subacute IDON, the MRI-data was acquired more than 30 yearss after the eruption of the unwellness. Six instances were first episodes and 12 the consequence of a recurrent episodes. At the same clip, we selected 9 topics whose disease had lasted longer than 1 twelvemonth and 14 topics less than 1 twelvemonth to look into the secondary effec ts to OR. The survey was approved by the moralss commission of the Beijing Tongren Hospital and a written informed consent was obtained from each topic harmonizing to the Declaration of Helsinki. Data acquisition All measurings were performed on a 1.5-T Signa MRI system ( General Electric, Milwaukee, WI, USA ) . Head gesture was minimized by keeping foam tablets provided by the maker. Subjects were asked to shut their eyes in order to minimise any effects of deliberate oculus motion during the acquisition clip. Each topic was scanned utilizing a high declaration T2-weighted ( fluid-attenuated inversion recovery sequences ) FLAIR sequence ( TR=9000ms, TE=120ms, TI=2125ms, field of position ( FOV ) =24A-21cm2, matrix size 256A-222, 32 pieces, 4.0 millimeter piece thickness with 0.8-mm interslice spread ) in order to observe any encephalon abnormalcies. At the clip of the ocular neuritis, the patients had no important image impairment or other marks of neurologic lesions in the ocular radiation. The images of the ocular nervousnesss were obtained with an 8-channel caput spiral utilizing coronal-oblique spin-echo EPI sequence with parallel acquisition. The coronal-oblique pieces were set extraneous to the nervousnesss ( See Fig.1 ) . The covering scope was from the ocular papilla to the orbital vertex of the ocular nervus. We used the undermentioned acquisition parametric quantities for the ocular nervus: one b0 and 6 non-collinear gradient waies with b=600s/mm2, FOV= 22A-22 cm2, matrix size 128A-128, NEX= 16, 8 immediate 5.0 millimeter pieces. By concentrating entirely on the ocular nervus, the signal-noise-ratio ( SNR ) of images was set at 35-40. The diffusion acquisition parametric quantities of the ocular radiation were the undermentioned: one b0 and 15 non-collinear waies with b=1000 s/mm2, TR=6000ms, TI=71ms, FOV = 24A-24cm2, matrix size 128A-128, NEX=6, 22 immediate 4.0 millimeter pieces. In add-on a whole-brain 3D T1 SPGR sequence ( TR=10ms, TE=4.4ms, TI=600ms, FOV=2 6A-26cm2, matrix size=256A-256, NEX=1, 152 immediate 1.0-mm pieces ) was used as a beginning image for the subsequent co-registration of the ocular radiation. Figure 1. Position of the pieces viewed on an axial localizer position of the ocular nervus. There are 8 pieces from the anterior portion ( next to the ocular papilla ) to the posterior portion ( near the orbital vertex ) of the ocular nervus. Datas processing The first measure was to formalize the quality of the natural images. The images with deficient quality were rescanned until they met the SNR standards set for the analysis. Then eddy current deformations and gesture artefacts in the DT-MRI informations were corrected by using affine alliance, utilizing FMRIBs diffusion tool chest ( FSL, Oxford, UK. ) [ 25-26 ] . In order to be able to compare diffusion belongingss in patients and controls, a method to place matching anatomical parts was required. The first necessary measure was to happen a consistent spacial standardization for the two separate groups. Due to the different protocols for ocular nervus and ocular radiation we present two different methods for the processing of the several MRI-data, and depict these methods in the undermentioned subdivisions. Ocular nervus fibre Image enrollment The maps of MD, FA and eigenvector were calculated on a voxel-by-voxel footing, followed by a diagonalization of the reconstructed tensor matrix in order to obtain characteristic root of a square matrixs ( I »1, I »2, I »3 ) and eigenvectors utilizing DTIStudio ( MRI Studio Software, Johns Hopkins University, USA ) . To be able to rectify for planetary morphological differences a expansive mean b0 informations set was created from all topics. This mean image was so used as a mention relation to which each topic was positioned ( single b0 to template b0 ) with a 12-parameter affine theoretical account. The same transmutation parametric quantities were so used to co-register the MD and FA images to the templet b0. Regions of involvement ( ROI ) choice The intraorbital 4th bed of the nervus ( about 2.0cm after the ball ) was used for the undermentioned analysis ( See Fig.2 ) . The ROIs were defined manually on the b0-template ( mean non-diffusion-weighted ) dwelling of two square 2A-2 voxels ( Fig.2A ) . To avoid prejudice caused by the partial volume consequence, the ROIs were placed in the centre of the nervus. After averaging the images across the population, the b0-images contained significantly less noise than in single images. The associated color-coded maps were used for optimum ROI arrangement ( Fig.2B ) and to vouch objectiveness the process was performed by an experient radiotherapist blinded to the individuality of the topic. The ROIs of single instances were mapped from the templet b0 utilizing an reverse transmutation. These ROIs were so overlaid to the MD, FA and eigenvalue maps, where average values from the 4 voxels were obtained ( Fig.2C-D ) . Figure 2. ROI choice in the 3rd piece of the ON. ( A ) Non-diffusion-weighted b0 image, ( B ) Color-map, ( C ) FA map, and ( D ) MD map. The pointer is indicating to the ocular nervus. The ROIs were placed on the b0-averaged images and so transferred onto the FA and MD maps. Ocular radiation fibre All piece of lands in the informations were reconstructed utilizing a fiber assignment uninterrupted tracking algorithm [ 6 ] . In order to minimise the anatomical encephalon variableness between topics, a group-based Atlas model was introduced building a population specific templet. We applied the joint analysis model for group-based co-registration uniting structural and diffusion tensor MRI similar to Tao et Al. [ 27 ] , but utilized the Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration utilizing Exponentiated Lie algebra ( DARTEL ) enrollment method [ 28 ] . As a high-dimensional diffeomorphic enrollment method, this novel technique utilizes the big distortion model parameterized by speed vector Fieldss to continue topology. The amount of square differences between the beginning and mark images are minimized at the same time to the enrollment, and the additive elastic energy of the distortions are used to falsify the mark image, which can better the realignment public presentation of little interior constructions [ 29-30 ] . Combined DTI and structural analysis grapevine Group templet maps were created utilizing statistical parametric function ( SPM8, Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, Institute of Neurology, London, UK ) to find the normal inter-subject variableness of white affair tracts. We built a structural Atlas from all topics T1 images with the DARTEL tool chest. After this measure the b0 -volume of each DT-MRI information set was registered to the associated T1 image utilizing a 12-parameter affine transmutation. The corrected diffusion images of each topic were algebraically transformed to compose a structural Atlas infinite, enabling anatomical designation and comparing of the ocular radiation in the aforesaid atlas infinite. An overview of the process observing differences between the diffusion belongingss of fibre piece of lands is shown in Fig.3. Figure 3. Ocular radiation analysis grapevine jointly utilizing structural and diffusion images. Regions of involvement ( ROI ) choice After the atlas building process, we used a multiple ROI attack to work the fibre piece of land. The get downing ROI was manually placed in the sidelong geniculate organic structure on a reconstructed axial image with an AND operation. It was designed to include the ocular radiation of each side and the full environing white affair. For each piece of land, a 2nd spherical ROI with 4mm radius was placed in the occipital lobe near the midplane with an AND operation. Reconstructed fibres perforating both ROIs were considered representative of the ocular radiation ( See Fig.4 ) . These two ROIs were so overlaid on the FA maps and transferred to other directional diffusivity maps. Diffusivity in all spacial waies was obtained from every voxel along the path of the ocular radiation. Figure 4. DTI fiber tracking and extraction of ocular radiation. DTI fibre paths ( green ) were launched from a get downing part of involvement ( white box ) in a plane buttocks to the sidelong geniculate karyon. Fiber paths were filtered with a 2nd part of involvement ( two balls ) in a plane adjacent to the ocular cerebral mantle. Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were performed utilizing SPSS v13.0 ( SPSS Inc. , USA ) . In a first measure, ipsilateral differences between patients and controls were explored utilizing a mated t-test. To avoid the prejudice originating from the categorization of the bilateral involved nervousnesss of one patient being the same ON phase into the same group, we applied Generalized Estimating Equation ( GEE ) . This method, introduced by Zeger et Al. [ 31 ] , extends generalised additive theoretical accounts to suit correlated informations from topics with similar features. Consequences Directional diffusivity of ocular nervus Acute accent ON The survey consisted of 33 acute-stage instances: 26 first manifestations and 7 recurrent instances. Significant differences within the ROIs comparing the two subgroups of patients and their controls were detected in all DT-MRI measurings ( paired t trial, see Table 2, besides see Fig.5 ) . The average FA was significantly reduced ; the mean MD and I »aS? were increased in the acute-stage IDON instances compared to healthy controls. In patients with first manifestation, significantly decreased I »a values were detected ( t = 2.10, P = 0.046 ) . And increased I »a were found in recurrent patients compared to controls ( t = 0.84, P = 0.434 ) with no important difference. Since there were merely 7 instances with a perennial disease history, we decided to measure merely the first manifestation group and matched healthy group in Table 3 utilizing GEE. This survey proved the average FA from ON patients to be significantly lower compared to healthy controls ( omega = 61.053, P lt ; 0 .001 ) . Compared to healthy controls, we found drastically elevated I »aS? ( z = 19.181, P lt ; 0.001 ) in the patients and somewhat decreased I »a , but the latter did non make statistical significance ( z = 3.414, P = 0.065 ) . ( A ) ( B ) ( C ) ( D ) Figure 5. Quantitative analysis of DT-MRI indices in ON. Relative alterations of the ( A ) FA, ( B ) MD, ( C ) I »a , ( D ) I »aS? in each ocular nervus from controls and the instances of first oncoming during acute phase ( expressed as mean A ± standard divergence ) . Paired t trial demonstrated that MD and I »aS? were significantly elevated and FA was notably reduced in affected nervousnesss. Table 2. Diffusion parametric quantities from the instances during acute stage of IDON ( first and perennial oncoming ) Indexs Acute Controls t-value p-value FA foremost 0.39A ± 0.08 0.59A ± 0.09 8.40 0.000 recurrent 0.33A ± 0.05 0.64A ± 0.11 7.46 0.000 MD foremost 1.50A ± 0.20 1.40A ± 0.30 2.22 0.036 recurrent 1.80A ± 0.28 1.20A ± 0.36 3.54 0.012 I »a foremost 2.18A ± 0.31 2.39A ± 0.45 2.10 0.046 recurrent 2.50A ± 0.31 2.27A ± 0.64 0.84 0.434 I »aS? foremost 1.10A ± 0.20 0.80A ± 0.27 5.40 0.000 recurrent 1.50A ± 0.28 0.70A ± 0.28 5.45 0.002 Thirty-three instances with IDON were of acute phase ( the continuance of the disease from scrutiny to last onset twenty-four hours was less than one month ) , of which 26 instances in 19 topics were foremost affected and seven instances in 7 topics suffered from recurrent episodes. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Table 3. The GEE consequences of diffusion indices from the instances of first oncoming during acute phase Indexs Parameter appraisal criterion divergence z-value p-value FA -0.201 0.026 61.053 0.000 MD 0.137 0.000 3.253 0.071 I »a -0.208 0.000 3.414 0.065 I »aS? 0.309 0.000 19.181 0.000 Twenty-six instances in 19 topics were foremost involved. The values of axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values are expressed as the natural logarithm of the ratio between controls and patients with IDON in the acute phase. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. GEE=Generalized estimating equation. Subacute ON The DT-MRI information of 18 remitting instances is illustrated in Table 4. As is shown, both instances with first manifestation of IDON ( paired t trial, n = 6 ) ) and perennial IDON ( paired t trial, n = 12 ) showed a similar tendency with decreased FA values and increased MD, I »a and I »aS? when compared to controls ( see Table 4 ) . However, there was no important difference in I »a ( t = 2.46, P = 0.057 ) between subacute IDON patients with first episode and controls. We suspect that this may be due to the little sample size ( n=6 ) . Table 4. Diffusion indices from instances during the subacute stage of IDON ( first and perennial oncoming ) Indexs Acute Controls t-value p-value FA foremost 0.39A ±0.08 0.56A ±0.03 4.42 0.007 recurrent 0.35A ±0.10 0.56A ±0.05 8.01 0.000 MD foremost 1.80A ±0.28 1.40A ±0.08 3.87 0.012 recurrent 2.10A ±0.44 1.50A ±0.140 4.73 0.001 I »a foremost 2.64A ±0.36 2.34A ±0.10 2.46 0.057 recurrent 2.96A ±0.49 2.52A ±0.29 2.35 0.038 I »aS? foremost 1.40A ±0.27 0.90A ±0.09 4.25 0.008 recurrent 1.70A ±0.45 1.00A ±0.10 5.88 0.000 Eighteen instances with IDON were in the subacute phase ( the continuance of the disease from the scrutiny twenty-four hours to the last oncoming had been more than one month ) in which six instances in 5 topics had been affected for the first clip and twelve in 8 topics had been affected antecedently. Patients were defined as â€Å" recurrent † , if they had had more than two oncomings of symptoms at the clip of the MRI appraisal. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Directional diffusivity of ocular radiation The DT-MRI scrutiny of ocular radiation was performed on 23 patients. Nine patients, whose diseases had lasted from 1 twelvemonth to 13 old ages, and 14 patients, whose diseases had lasted from 8 yearss to 4 months, were included in this analysis. The path of the reconstructed fibres and tract-specific quantification was consistent with the known anatomy of the human ocular tract from old surveies conducted by Ciccarelli et Al. and Xie et Al. [ 21, 32 ] . These findings showed connexions from the posterior portion of the ocular radiation to ocular countries and connexions between the median portion and the karyon of the sidelong geniculate organic structure. Table 5 illustrates the average FA, MD, I »aS? and I »a within the reconstructed ocular radiation of 9 patients whose disease had lasted more than 1 twelvemonth ( mated T trial, n=9 ) . Compared to the control group, the FA values demo a statistically important lessening ( t = 3.45, P = 0.009 ) and the I »aS? value a dramat ic addition ( t = 3.92, P = 0.004 ) ( See Fig.6 ) . Compared to the controls, there is no statistically alteration in the mean FA, MD, I »aS? and I »a within the reconstructed ocular radiation of 14 patients, whose disease had lasted less than 1 twelvemonth ( mated T trial, n=14, see Table 6 ) . ( A ) ( B ) Figure 6. Relative alterations of the FA and I »aS? in each ocular nervus from controls and patients who had suffered more than one twelvemonth from ocular damage ( expressed as mean A ± standard divergence ) . Table 5. Diffusion parametric quantities in IDON patients whose disease had lasted more than 1 twelvemonth in comparing with controls Parameter ON Controls t-value p-value FA 0.46A ± 0.04 0.50A ± 0.03 3.45 0.009 MD 0.89A ± 0.05 0.84A ± 0.02 2.14 0.065 I »a 1.38A ± 0.07 1.37A ± 0.07 0.41 0.691 I »aS? 0.64A ± 0.06 0.58A ± 0.02 3.92 0.004 Nine topics are included. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy is without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Table 6. Diffusion parametric quantities in IDON patients whose disease had lasted less than 1 twelvemonth in comparing with controls Indexs ON Controls t-value p-value FA 0.49A ±0.04 0.48A ±0.03 0.62 0.547 MD 0.88A ±0.04 0.87A ±0.04 1.06 0.308 I »a 1.41A ±0.03 1.38A ±0.06 2.06 0.062 I »aS? 0.62A ±0.05 0.61A ±0.04 0.34 0.738 Fourteen topics are included. Axial, radial, and average diffusivities ( I »a , I »aS? , MD ) were given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy was without units. All values of DTI indices are given as the mean A ± criterion divergence. IDON=idiopathic ocular neuritis. Discussion The most common cause for IDON is believed to be an autoimmune reaction against the medulla environing the fibres in the ocular nervus which induces an inflammatory response that can ensue nerve harm. In some instances, early symptoms of ON may bespeak an eruption of MS, a disease besides caused by redness and axon harm in encephalon and the spinal cord. Therefore, a alternate biomarker is needed to uncover the implicit in pathological procedures of ON. In the current survey we used the directional diffusivities from DT-MRI to look into the abnormalcies in ocular nervousnesss and ocular radiation after ON. The diameter of the human ocular nervus is about 3-4mm. The nervus is surrounded by several beds of membranes, for illustration nervus sheath and orbital fat. Artifacts caused by eye-movement and the susceptibleness effects caused by nearby fistulas make it hard to get dependable diffusion image informations and to keep an equal SNR. Methods like spin-echo echo planar imagination ( SE-EPI ) [ 33 ] , interior volume imaging ( IVI ) or decreased field of position technique [ 34-36 ] were introduced to better image quality. In this survey, the SE-EPI protocol, a comparatively low maximal b-value with 600 s/mm2, six independent waies and a high figure of acquisitions were used to guarantee a suited a sufficiently high SNR. This method has antecedently been validated by several writers, such as Trip et al. , Kolbe et al. , Xu et Al. and many more [ 12, 17, 34, 36-37 ] . In add-on, we scanned the ocular nervus bilaterally in a coronal plane since the image deformation was greater in a sepa rate one-sided acquisition. Kolbe et Al. [ 12 ] scanned ocular nervousnesss separately in 10 coronal oblique pieces set extraneous to the nervus and analyzed the first six pieces. The group found the diffusivity values to alter drastically along the length of the ocular nervus. The FA values in the 1st and 2nd piece were well lower and the MD values well higher than in other parts. No important differences in FA or MD were found in the 3 last pieces. In the presented survey, we divided the ocular nervus into eight extraneous coronal oblique pieces. The superimposed form of DT-MRI diffusivity was confirmed in a pretest survey: the ocular nervus on pieces 6-8 was identical in most instances, and the diffusion indices were susceptible to vitreous organic structure in the pieces 1-2. In contrast, robust directional diffusivity was observed in the pieces 3-5. FA and MD values showed no important differences between the right and the left ocular nervus in healthy controls as illustrated in Table 7. Randomized discrep ancy block-analysis indicated important differences in FA but non in MD among the pieces ( see Table 8, FA: F = 17.54, P lt ; 0.001 ; MD: F=0.500, p=0.613 ) . In add-on, the FA values in the 4th and 5th pieces were higher than in the 3rd piece ( p lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 4th ) , p lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 5th ) ) , but did non differ statistically from each other ( p = 0.757 ( 4th vs. 5th ) ) . We suggest that the consequence of oculus motions is smaller in the posterior portion of the ocular nervus. We assume that two factors may impact the diffusivity values: foremost, the possible mobility of the ocular nervus may be reduced in the mid-posterior portion ; 2nd, a more directional motion of H2O molecules in the well-organized and compact fibres. The fifth bed of the ocular nervus ( about 2.5 centimeters distal from the orb ) could be measured clearly in most topics, but measurings failed in five teenaged and in one 60-year-old patient due to reconstruction jobs. For that ground we had to utilize the 4th bed ( about 2 centimeter after the ball ) in this survey. DT-MRI utilizations H2O diffusion features to retrace white affair construction through diffusion way and amplitude. Altered diffusion parametric quantities were found in patients with chronic ON compared to healthy controls: MD was increased and FA decreased [ 13 ] . Harmonizing to Smith et Al. [ 38 ] , the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the clinical symptoms in the ague ON include redness, hydrops, demyelination and loss of axons in the ocular nervus. A self-generated visus recovery a few hebdomads or even months after the hurt has been reported in some instances. Many factors like a diminishing inflammatory response, remyelination, Restoration of conductivity in demyelinated axons, as suggested by Smith et Al. [ 38 ] and cortical or subcortical malleability, as proposed for illustration by Toosy et Al. and Werring et Al. [ 14-15, 39-40 ] may take to the ocular recovery. Since the demyelination presumptively is a dynamic procedure, we hypothesized that different DTI indic es may alter at different phases of ON. Table 7. Lateral differences of FA and MD values in pieces 3-5 from 10 healthy controls in the pretest survey FA MD Right side Left side t-value p-value Right side Left side t-value p-value 3rd 0.57A ± 0.04 0.56A ± 0.06 0.297 0.774 1.57A ± 0.14 1.60A ± 0.19 -0.795 0.452 4th 0.67A ± 0.05 0.67A ± 0.05 -0.291 0.779 1.61A ± 0.23 1.58A ± 0.18 0.853 0.418 5th 0.67A ± 0.05 0.68A ± 0.05 -0.472 0.65 1.50A ± 0.20 1.52A ± 0.20 -0.628 0.548 FA and MD values showed no important differences between the right and the left ocular nervus in healthy controls Average Diffusivities ( MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy ( FA ) is without units. Table 8. Comparison of FA and MD values in pieces 3-5 from 10 healthy controls in the pretest survey Indexs Slice Statistic 3rd ( meanA ±std ) 4th ( meanA ±std ) 5th ( meanA ±std ) F-value p-value FA 0.56A ± 0.04 0.67A ± 0.05 0.68A ± 0.05 17.54 lt ; 0.001 MD 1.58A ± 0.15 1.60A ± 0.21 1.51A ± 0.21 0.500 0.613 Randomized discrepancy block-analysis indicated important differences in FA but non in MD among 3rd-5th pieces. In add-on, after multiple comparings by the least important difference ( LSD ) trial, we found the FA values in the 4th and 5th pieces were higher than in the 3rd piece ( F = 17.54, P lt ; 0.001 ; P lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 4th ) , p lt ; 0.000 ( 3rd vs. 5th ) ) , but did non differ statistically from each other ( p = 0.757 ( 4th vs. 5th ) ) . Average Diffusivities ( MD ) are given in A µm2/ms. Fractional anisotropy ( FA ) is without units. Naismith et Al. [ 20 ] discovered the FA and I »aS? to be the first parametric quantities to alter in the acute IDON. I »a was decreased to a singular extent in the acute IDON and this step was found to correlate with the ocular result. In our survey, we found significantly increased average I »aS? and decreased FA in 33 instances with acute IDON during first episode and recurrent instances when compared to controls, and besides detected a lessening in the I »a of patients with a first episode in the acute phase by utilizing mated t trial ( t =2.10, P = 0.046 ) although that difference did non make statistical significance ( z = 3.414, P = 0.065 ) after GEE theoretical account analysis was performed. Since the pathological alterations in recurrent instances are more complex than in instances with first clip manifestation, and since the sample size of recurrent instances was little ( n=6 ) , we will merely discourse the first episode subgroup as we assume that this theoretical account likely reflects the pathological alterations in acute period more closely. In instances with white affair hurt merely affecting medulla devolution, we hypothesize that I »aS? is likely to increase, reflecting the increased freedom of H2O molecules to undergo Brownian Motion perpendicular to the axons due to the loss of myelin unity. The consequences of our survey confirm consistent pathological alterations and back up our premise. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis ( EAE ) is a widely used carnal theoretical account, which can imitate many characteristics of human MS. ON is one of the phenotypes in EAE mice. The I »a and I »aS? appear to be both sensitive and specific for axonal hurt and demyelination, severally in Xu et Al. survey [ 14 ] . Wu et Al. [ 41 ] studied an EAE murine theoretical account in the ague phase utilizing in vivo diffusion-weighted imagination with diffusion sensitising gradients parallel and perpendicular to the axonal piece of lands. They detected that progressive acute axonal harm resulted in a 23 % lessening in I »a at 20 yearss after immunisation. Using a mated t-test, we found that I »a lessenings in patients with first episode in the ague IDON, a determination we ascribe to axonal hurt happening during the acute phase. However, this decision needs to be reconfirmed by more research. Trip et Al. and Kolbe et Al. [ 12, 17 ] found increased MD and reduced FA-values in patients with one-sided IDON who had suffered from ocular symptoms for a lower limit of at least one twelvemonth. The writers considered these alterations to be chiefly caused by axonal loss, with demyelination and gliosis playing a partial function. In our survey, 18 instances with IDON in the subacute phase, both of first manifestations and recurrent instances, showed significantly decreased FA and increased I »aS? , I »a and MD when compared to controls, back uping the findings of the aforesaid writers. The DT-MRI fibre paths and cleavage of ocular radiation from the sidelong geniculate karyon to the ocular cerebral mantle have already been studied by Yamamoto et Al. and Berman et Al. [ 42-43 ] . Bajraszewski et Al. [ 44 ] found significantly increased MD and reduced FA besides in the ocular radiation in patients with ocular neuritis ( symptom onset 4.0 A ± 0.4 old ages ) compared to controls and suggested the alterations to be caused by anterograde effects of the nervus harm. Our survey found no important alterations in diffusion parametric quantities in patients with ON continuance under one twelvemonth, but a significantly decreased FA and higher I »aS? if the disease continuance exceeded that period of clip. This difference indicates more serious wasting of the ocular radiation after the return of symptoms. The most likely pathogenesis of unnatural diffusion in ocular radiation would look to be secondary lesions induced by axonal devolution after ON. We besides observed an increased MD value in ocular radiation in chronic ON patients compared with control topics. However, the alteration was non important ( t = 2.14, P = 0.065 ) , perchance because of the little figure of patients. These findings support our hypothesis that unnatural diffusion in ocular radiation is an of import feature of ON. Further research is still needed to further beef up the function of DT-MRI measurings in ON rating and degree appraisal. Decisions In the current survey, we applied DT-MRI methodological analysis to look into alterations in ocular nervus and radiation. Our consequences in footings of diffusion parametric quantity alterations both during ague and remitting ON support and widen antecedently reported findings. Additionally, we found significantly decreased FA and increased I »aS? in the ocular radiation of chronic ON patients. We were able to observe dynamic alterations in the diffusion parametric quantities during the development of chronic ON, perchance bespeaking ongoing medulla harm. Based on our fresh findings we suggest directional diffusivity to possess great possible as a specific biomarker and rating step for myelin hurt. Future probes are needed to find whether these indices have practical parts to the diagnosing and forecast for patients with ON. Recognitions This work was supported by grants from NSFC ( 20670530, 60875079 ) , the 863 undertaking ( 2007AA01Z327 ) and Beijing Nova Plan ( 2007A094 ) . We would wish to thank Prof. Chunshui Yu and Dr. Wen Qin for proficient aid geting MR images, Dr. Wei Shi, MD Nora Hailla, and Dr. Siegfried Wurster for valuable expertness and counsel to this research, Prof. Xiaojun Zhang for patient enlisting and all our topics kindly holding to take portion in this survey. How to cite Optic Radiation In Optic Neuritis Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Poppers 3-World free essay sample

Poppers 3-World ontology consists of that of the spatio-temporal world of objects (say, W1), that of minds, intentionality and mental states (W2), and that of unembodied or embodied entities on which W2 has acted (W3). On the other hand, Moutons model consists of three worlds, sequentially that of the real-world (let us say, Wm1), the world of science (Wm2), and the world of meta-science (Wm3).The authors is interpreted as the process existing in the worlds of abstraction / conceptualisation (D1), the representational stage (D2) and finally the constructed stage (D3).The subject is viewed through the lens of Karl Poppers theory of 3 worlds, as well as its interpretation by Mouton [2], which talks about the role of each of the phenomena in the real world, i.e., abstract thoughts in a persons head, representations such as sketches or drawings to the final constructions at manufacturing or at site. We will write a custom essay sample on Poppers 3-World or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The designer is usually most involved in the representational phase, where the thoughts and ideas are converted into the representational form of drawings or visualisation models using todays computational technology.A different classificatory system of design is explored here which takes its inspiration from some of the systems described in ontological research. Popper [1] described a three worlds theory, where he described as the world as divided intoIt is extended by the work of Mouton [2], also using similar terminology, but clarifying the purpose of each world into more distinct entities.Popper [1] defines the world as made up of three worlds (W1, W2, W3), which are defined as the . This he states is separate from the world of monists, who believe that the world is made up of only physical entities, or of dualists who believe that the world is composed entirely of physical entities and .. In contrast his 3- Worlds theory is made up of existing entities (W1), the products of thought (W2), and .. the result of interplay of thought and physical entities (W3). Popper suffices it to think that this pretty much defines all that can be thought of in the world. Poppers definition, however, is often unclear and confusing, in distinguishing between the products of .. and of thought (W3).Mouton [2] extends on Poppers 3-worlds definition to distinguish them into the three worlds of (Wm1), (Wm2), and (Wm3). Moutons world seems much clearer and one can distinguish the worlds of existent objects (Wm1), scientific thoughts (Wm2) and metascience (Wm3)

Biography of Edmonia Lewis, American Sculptor

Biography of Edmonia Lewis, American Sculptor Edmonia Lewis (c. July 4, 1844–September 17, 1907) was an American sculptor of African-American and Native American heritage. Her work, which features themes of freedom and abolition, became popular after the Civil War and earned her numerous accolades. Lewis depicted African, African-American, and Native American people in her work, and she is particularly recognized for her naturalism within the neoclassical genre. Fast Facts: Edmonia Lewis Known For: Lewis was a sculptor who used neoclassical elements to depict African-American and Native American people.Born:  July 4 or July 14, in either 1843 or 1845, possibly in upstate New YorkDied: September 17, 1907 in London, EnglandOccupation: Artist (sculptor)Education: Oberlin CollegeNotable Works:  Forever Free  (1867),  Hagar  in the Wilderness  (1868),  The Old Arrow Maker and His Daughter  (1872), The Death of  Cleopatra  (1875)Notable Quote: I was practically driven to Rome in order to obtain the opportunities for art culture, and to find a social atmosphere where I was not constantly reminded of my color. The land of liberty had not room for a colored sculptor. Early Life Edmonia Lewis was one of two children born to a mother of Native American and African-American heritage.  Her father, an African Haitian, was a gentlemens servant. Her birthdate and birthplace (possibly New York or Ohio) are in doubt. Lewis may have been born on July 14 or July 4, in either 1843 or 1845. She herself claimed her birthplace was upstate New York.   Lewis spent her early childhood with her mothers people, the Mississauga band of Ojibway (Chippewa Indians). She was known as Wildfire, and her brother was called Sunrise. After they were orphaned when Lewis was about 10 years old, two aunts took them in. They lived near Niagara Falls in northern New York. Education Sunrise, with wealth from the California Gold Rush and from working as a barber in Montana, financed his sisters education that included prep school and Oberlin College. She studied art at Oberlin beginning in 1859. Oberlin was one of very few schools at the time to admit either women or people of color. Lewiss time there, though, was not without its difficulties. In 1862, two white girls at Oberlin accused her of attempting to poison them. Lewis was acquitted of the charges but was subjected to verbal attacks and a beating by anti-abolitionist vigilantes. Even though Lewis was not convicted in the incident, Oberlins administration refused to allow her to enroll the next year to complete her graduation requirements. Early Success in New York After leaving Oberlin, Lewis went to Boston and  New York to study with sculptor Edward Brackett, who was introduced to her by abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. Soon, abolitionists began to publicize her work.  Lewiss first bust was of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, a white Bostonian who led black troops in the Civil War. She sold copies of the bust, and with the proceeds she was eventually able to move to Rome, Italy. Move to Marble and Neoclassical Style In Rome, Lewis joined a large artistic community that included other women sculptors such as Harriet Hosmer, Anne Whitney, and Emma Stebbins. She began to work in marble and adopted the neoclassical style, which included elements of ancient Greek and Roman art. Concerned with racist assumptions that she wasnt really responsible for her work, Lewis worked alone and was not part of the community that drew buyers to Rome. Among her patrons in America was abolitionist and feminist Lydia Maria Child. Lewis converted to Roman Catholicism during her time in Italy. Lewis told a friend that she lived within the city of Rome to support her art: There is nothing so beautiful as the free forest. To catch a fish when you are hungry, cut the boughs of a tree, make a fire to roast it, and eat it in the open air, is the greatest of all luxuries. I would not stay a week pent up in cities, if it were not for my passion for art. Edmonia Lewis most famous sculpture: The Death of Cleopatra (1876). Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain Famous Sculptures Lewis had some success, especially among American tourists, for her depictions of African, African-American, and Native American people. Egyptian themes were, at the time, considered representations of Black Africa. Her work has been criticized for the Caucasian look of many of her female figures, though their costuming is considered more ethnically accurate. Among her best-known sculptures are Forever Free (1867), a sculpture commemorating the ratification of the 13th Amendment and which depicts a black man and woman celebrating the Emancipation Proclamation; Hagar in the Wildnerness, a sculpture of the Egyptian handmaiden of Sarah and Abraham, mother of Ishmael; The Old Arrow-Maker and His Daughter, a scene of Native Americans; and The Death of Cleopatra, a depiction of the Egyptian queen. Lewis created the The Death of Cleopatra for the 1876 Philadelphia Centenniel, and it was also displayed at the 1878 Chicago Exposition. The sculpture was lost for a century. It turned out to have been displayed on the grave of a race track owners favorite horse, Cleopatra, while the track was transformed first into a golf course and then a munitions plant. With another building project, the statue was moved and then rediscovered, and in 1987 it was restored. It is now part of the collection of the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Death Lewis disappeared from public view in the late 1880s. Her last known sculpture was completed in 1883, and Frederick Douglass met with her in Rome in 1887. A Catholic magazine reported on her in 1909 and there was a report of her in Rome in 1911. For a long time, no definitive death date was known for Edmonia Lewis. In 2011, cultural historian Marilyn Richardson uncovered evidence from British records that she was living in the Hammersmith area of London and died in the Hammersmith Borough Infirmary on September 17, 1907, despite those reports of her in 1909 and 1911. Legacy Though she received some attention in her lifetime, Lewis and her innovations were not widely recognized until after her death. Her work has been featured in several posthumous exhibitions; some of her most famous pieces now reside in the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Cleveland Museum of Art. Sources Atkins, Jeannine.  Stone Mirrors: The Sculpture and Silence of Edmonia Lewis.  Simon Schuster, 2017.Buick, Kirsten.  Child of the Fire: Mary Edmonia Lewis and the Problem of Art History’s Black and Indian Subject.  Duke University Press, 2009.Henderson, Albert.  The Indomitable Spirit of Edmonia Lewis: A Narrative Biography.  Esquiline Hill Press, 2013.

An Overview of Chinas One-Child Policy

An Overview of Chinas One-Child Policy Chinas one-child policy was established by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in 1979 to restrict communist Chinas population growth and limited couples to having only one child. Although designated a temporary measure, it remained in effect for more than 35 years. Fines, pressures to abort a pregnancy, and even forced sterilization of women accompanied second or subsequent pregnancies. The policy was not an all-encompassing rule because it was restricted to ethnic Han Chinese living in urban areas. Citizens living in rural areas and minorities living in China were not subject to the law.   Unintended Effects of the One-Child Law There have long been reports  that officials have forced women pregnant without permission to have abortions and have levied steep fines on families violating the law. In 2007 in the southwestern Guangxi Autonomous Region of China,  riots broke out as a result, and some people may have been killed, including population control officials. The Chinese have long had a preference for male heirs, so the one-child  rule  caused many problems for female infants:  abortion, out-of-country adoption, neglect, abandonment, and even infanticide were known to occur to females. Statistically, such Draconian family planning has resulted in the disparate (estimated) ratio of 115 males for every 100 females among babies born.  Normally, 105 males are naturally born for every 100 females. This  skewed ratio in China creates the problem of a generation of young men not having enough women to marry and have their own families, which has been speculated may cause future unrest in the country. These forever bachelors will not have a family to care for them in their old age either, which could put a strain on future government social services. The one-child rule has been estimated to have reduced population growth in the country of nearly 1.4 billion (estimated, 2017) by as much  as 300 million  people over its first 20 years. Whether the male-to-female ratio eases with the discontinuation of the one-child policy will come clear over  time. Chinese Now Allowed to Have Two Children Though the one-child policy may have had the goal of preventing the countrys population of spiraling out of control, after several decades, there were concerns over its cumulative demographic effect, namely the country having  a shrinking labor pool and smaller young population to take care of the number of elderly people in ensuing decades. So in 2013, the country eased the policy to allow some families to have two children. In late 2015, Chinese officials announced the scrapping the policy altogether, allowing all couples to have two children.   Future of Chinas Population Chinas  total fertility rate  (the number of births per  woman) is 1.6,  higher than slowly declining Germany at 1.45 but lower than the U.S. at 1.87 (2.1 births per woman is the replacement level of fertility, representing a stable population, exclusive of migration). The effect of the two-child rule hasnt made the population decline stabilize completely, but the law is young yet.

The WTO has been hijacked by rich country interests, thereby worsening Essay

The WTO has been hijacked by rich country interests, thereby worsening the conditions of the poor in less prosperous countries - Essay Example Taking the case of Zimbabwe as case in point, one can see how the WTO seeks to exploit this resource rich area of the globe for its mineral wealth while at the same time rejecting the market value of finished goods or food that Zimbabwe is capable of producing (Baumberg & Anderson, 2008). As such, the relationship is only a one way relationship in which Zimbabwe, and many nations like it, are forced to sell their products at lower prices to the richer members of the WTO. Further, even the goods that might exist to be traded on the global market are disproportionately priced and locked out of key global markets as a result of the actions that entities such as the WTO engage. Yes, it must not be the understanding of the reader that such a situation of raw material extraction and price setting is somehow unique with regards to sub-Saharan Africa. Instead, the unfortunate fact of the matter is that developed nations around the globe utilize price setting and currency wars, as well as pro duct dumping, to ensure that this particular approach to global supremacy and economic power are maintained at a systemic level. Further, taking the example of Burma, a nation that has only recently stepped out of military dictatorship, it can be understood that the WTO also seeks to take advantage of this nation; not only with respect to its surplus of cheap labor but with regards to its agricultural exports. As a direct result of the combined benefit of preferential trade, WTO member nations, specifically the wealthy ones, are able to pay their own farmers a subsidy in order that they might be able to compete with the low cost exports of nations such as Burma. In such a manner, entities such as the WTO are able to exploit poorer/less developed nations by forcing them to sell the products that are desired at a given price as well as ensuring that they are not able to gorow their own domestic economy by subsidizing any industry or agricultural sector that runs the risk of being over taken by the cheap exports that such a nation might provide to the market (Williams, 2001). One need look no further than the way in which heavy levels of subsidies exist throughout Western Europe and the United States in order to understand the way in which offenses maneuvers are continually engaged to ensure that the third world is unable to compete with the first. As such, the take away understanding that can be provided from this brief analysis is the fact that the WTO is ultimately like any other organization is made up of a large number of stakeholders (Antell & Coleman, 2011). Rather than determining that the WTO is brought to human ethics and should be dissolved immediately and forth with, the more reasonable and rational understanding that should be engaged is the fact that a disproportionate level of power and determinacy is given to those nations that hold the wealth throughout the global system; enabling them to take advantage of the poorer nations and set prices rather than engaging in a level of true economic freedom and cooperation. Ironically, this level of freedom and economic cooperation is the cornerstone upon which the WTO was originally founded. However, as can be seen from the preceding

MARKETING AND ITS ENVIRONMENT Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MARKETING AND ITS ENVIRONMENT - Case Study Example Another major target market for Marks & Spencer includes people who are traveling or vacationing in the area of their outlet. The brand name of Mark & Spencer is synonymous with upscale and high quality products which are extremely desirous to everyone who goes to a Marks & Spencer outlet; especially to foreigners who are traveling into the country. Therefore, these people formulate a significant section of the market which constitutes the consumers of Mark & Spencer's products. Here, we will look at the services that are provided by Marks & Spencer for their brands. The key concept behind the services that are provided by Marks & Spencer is eliminating the crippling feeling of disparity that arises in the minds of the consumers with regards to the retailers and the customers. The shop keepers at Marks & Spencer portray themselves as being one from the legions of customers that formulate their target market, therefore, it becomes considerably easy for customers to associate with the shop keepers which allows for trust to be established between the customers and retailers. In addition, the ambience and general structure of Marks & Spencer outlets is created in such a way in order to create a homely environment for the customers. With soft colours, open space displays and effervescent shop keepers, Marks & Spencer fits the bill of a homely departmental store like a glove due to which their customers are highly energized by the ambience; which is considered to be one of the major reasons why Marks & Spencer enjoys a very loyal clientele and also are able to generate new customers from their existing consumer base due to word of mouth marketing. With these key ingredients as well as value addition services like overseas delivery etc, we can clearly establish that the services employed by Marks & Spencer for their brands formulate the best mix of marketing and customer closeness with regards to the product range that is offered by them; and it certainly has to be considered the most best practice towards services that are provided by firms of this genre. We will now look at the 7 P's of marketing mix in relation with the brands that are offered by Marks & Spencer. The first P that we will look at is Product. Now the product that is offered by Marks & Spencer is of the highest quality

Organizational behavior Essay -- essays research papers

To help us understand organizations, we might consider them as political systems. The political metaphor helps us understand power relationships in day-to-day organizational relationships. If we accept that power relations exist in organizations, then politics and politicking are an essential part of organizational life. Politics is a means of recognizing and, ultimately, reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled by any number of means. For example, resorting to "rule by the manager" might be seen as an example of totalitarian rule. On the other hand, politics may be a means of creating a noncoercive, or a democratic work environment. As mentioned, organizations need mechanisms whereby they reconcile conflicting interests. Hence, organizations, like governments, tend to "rule" by some sort of "system". This "system" is employed to create and maintain "order" among the organization's members. Systems of rule within organizations range from autocratic to democratic at the extremes. Between these extremes we find bureaucratic and technocratic systems. Whatever the system, each represents a political orientation with respect to how power is applied and distributed throughout theorganization. Each type of organizational "rule" simply draws on different principles of legitimacy. According to Aristotle, politics stems from a diversity of interests. To fully understand...

Industries in India Essay

Today India is one among the top ten industrial nations of the world. Industrial development has changed India’s economy from under-developed status to developing status. Industries can be classified into various types on the basis of their structure. The two main types are: 1) Manufacturing industries including heavy and light industries. 2) Small-scale and cottage industries . Manufacturing industries: Industries which are concerned with the processing or conversion of raw materials into finished products are called manufacturing industries. IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES: 1) Manufacturing industries increase the national income and per capita income. Industrial development increases the employment opportunities to a large number of people and thus increases their income. 2) Industrial development solves the problems of un-employment and under employment which are some of the major problems of India. 3) Industrial development promotes agricultural development. Many industries are agro-based industries. Agricultural products are raw materials for these industries. Development of these industries enables agriculture to increase its production. 4) Industrial development helps to utilise the natural resources, such as mineral resources, water resources, forest resources and other natural resources. Utilisation of these natural resources helps in the progress 0f the country. 5) Many institutions belonging to the tertiary sector are also developed as a result of industrial development. e.g. Banking, education, insurance, transport and communication. 6) Countries which depend only on agriculture have low standard of living. But countries which have developed both in agriculture and industries have well balanced economic system. 7) Industrialisation helps both the domestic and foreign trade of a nation. Many goods, which we produce are exported to  other countries and help us to earn foreign exchange. It also reduces our dependence on foreign countries for many goods. 8) Generally industries are located in towns and cities, this enables the towns and cities to become trade and cultural centres. 9) Arms and ammunition required for the defence of the country need to be produced in the country itself. We cannot depend on other countries for these arms and ammunition. Industries manufacture tankers, aeroplanes, explosives, guns, bullets and many other defence requirements and thus help to strengthen the defence of the country. 10) Increase of industries helps in the increase of income of the government because they pay taxes and duties to thegovernment. Facilities available for industrial development in India: 1) India has plenty of natural resources like forests, minerals, power resources, water resources etc. which are required for industrial development. 2) India has large human resource, which can provide cheap labour. The large population of India also provides market for industrial products. 3) India is an agricultural country. Agriculture provides raw materials for many industries and agriculture is the chief market for industrial products. Industrial development in India:Ancient India had made great progress in industries. Manufacture of cloth, gunny bags, paper and other industries were well developed in India. Example: Muslin cloth of Dacca, chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold embroidery of Surat. All these goods were manufactured in cottage industries. During the British period all these industries suffered. The industrial policy of the British and the Industrial Revolution in England were the main causes for the decline of our industries. However few modern manufacturing industries were started during the British period.Important among them were a cotton textile mill at Bombay in 1854, a Jute mill in Calcutta in 1855 and another cotton textile mill at Ahmedabad. A paper mill was started near Calcutta in 1867 and smelting of iron ore at Kulti in West Bengal in 1870. Availability of raw materials and cheap labour were responsible for the establishment of these industries. Our  industrial progress was very slow until the First World War. After the First World War, industries like iron and steel, chemicals, sugar, cement and machine tools were started. After Independence, our industries made great progress. The Five Year Plans were started for all-round economic development and today India occupies an important place in world industrial development. Factors for the location of Industries:The factors for the location of industries are availability of raw materials, power resources, transport and communication facilities, skilled and unskilled labour, favourable climate, capital, water resources, market and Government policy. All these facilities may not be found in one region, but a combination of these factors leads to the location of industries. Industrial regions of India:Based on the factors mentioned above, four main industrial regions are found in India. They are, 1) West Bengal, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh 2) Maharashtra and Gujarat 3) Central Gangetic region 4) South India Jharkhand, West Bengal and Chhattisgarh region: It is also known as Damodar-Hooghli region. The region includes Chotanagpur plateau which has large deposits of minerals like iron ore, coal, manganese, mica and bauxite. Port facilities, power resources and availability of cheap labour are the other factors. Maharashtra – Gujarat region: It has extensive cotton growing areas. There are good transport and port facilities, hydro-electric power, labour force and facilities for capital investment. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Sholapur are noted for cotton manufacture. Central Gangetic region: This region produces plenty of raw materials required for agro-based industries. The Plain region has made possible for the development of roads and railways. High density of population has provided market and labour supply. South India: The industries are spread over many towns and cities of South India. Many types of industries have been developed. Availability of raw materials, hydro-electric power, market and labour force have helped the growth of many industries. Bangalore, Chennai, Coimbatore, Salem and Hyderabad are the important industrial centres. IMPORTANT INDUSTRIESManufacturing industries are divided into two types on the basis of the raw materials that they use. They are 1) Agro-based industries 2) Mineral-based industries 1) AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES: The important agro-based industries are cotton textiles, jute, sugar and paper. COTTON TEXTILES: The first cotton textile mill on modern lines was started in Bombay in 1854. Later, mills were started at Ahmedabad in 1858, then in Kanpur, Nagpur, Sholapur, Surat and other places. Today India holds the third place among the cotton textile producing countries of the world. It provides mployment to a large number of people and also helps to earn foreign exchange. Gujarat and Maharashtra states, lead the country in cotton textile production. Mumbai and Ahmedabad are the important centres. Mumbai has the largest number of cotton textile mills. It is the main cotton textile centre in India. Mumbai is called cottonopolis or Manchester of India. (Manchester is the main cotton textile centre in England) The other important centres of cotton textiles are Nagpur and Sholapur in Maharashtra, Kolkata in West Bengal, Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, Indore in Madhya Pradesh, Surat in Gujarat, Salem, Coimbatore and Chennai in Tamilnadu, Bangalore and Davangere in Karnataka and Delhi. Handloom industry Handloom industry is concentrated in Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh. In recent years ready-made cotton garment industry has been developing fast and earns a good amount of foreign exchange. Cotton textiles and ready-made garments are exported from India to foreign markets. Europe,  the U.S.A., and many countries of Africa and Australia are our main markets. Rough cotton cloth and cotton thread are exported to Myanmar, Middle East, Thailand and other countries. Jute industry: Jute industry occupies an important place in the industrial progress of India. It has provided employment to about 25 lakh workers. India produces 35 % of the total jute products of the world. Its share in earning foreign exchange is also important. The first jute mill was started at Rishra near Kolkata in 1855. Being an export oriented industry, it grew very fast. The partition of India struck a heavy blow to the jute industry. Most of the jute mills remained in India and the jute growing areas went to East Pakistan (Bangladesh). Now attempts have been made to grow jute in the Gangetic delta of West Bengal, in Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Jute mills are largely concentrated in lower Hooghly basin. The main reasons for this concentration are availability of raw jute, fresh water, cheap water transport, power resources, cheap labour, capital and port facilities. In recent years, jute mills have also been located in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pra desh. The main jute products are gunny bags, jute cloth, tarpaulins, ropes and cordages (required for cable industry). India exports jute products to the U.S.A Britain, Canada, Argentina and Russia. Sugar Industry: Sugar has been used in India since a very long time. India produces White sugar, Khandsari and Gur or Jaggery. It provides employment to about 2.5 lakh people in India and also earns foreign exchange. Modern sugar mills were started in 1931. Sugarcane, which is the raw material for sugar industry, is a perishable and weight losing raw material. The Sugar factories are located wherever sugarcane is grown. Sugar factories are concentrated in the Gangetic plain (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar). The other states where sugar factories are found are Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The sugarcane of Peninsular India yields more sugar than the North Indian sugarcane. There are 37 sugar factories in Karnataka. The districts of Mandya, Belgaum and Bellary have a large number of sugar factories. Gorakhpur districts of Uttar Pradesh has  the largest number of sugar mills and is called â€Å"Java of India†. India exports sugar to the U.S.A, B ritain, Iran, Malaysia and Canada. Paper Industry: Paper manufacturing had been carried on in India as a cottage industry since ancient times. As a manufacturing industry it was first started in 1867 at Bally near Kolkata. There were only 15 paper mills before independence. Softwood, bamboo, sabai grass, straw, bagasse, soft water and chemicals are the raw materials required for paper industry. Owing to very limited forest as raw materials. The chemicals required for paper industry are caustic soda, soda ash, sodium sulphate, chlorine and sulphuric acid. West Bengal has the largest number of paper mills in India. The reasons for it are, availability of raw materials, coal and electricity, abundant supply of soft water, supply of capital and availability of cheap labour. The important centres are Kolkata, Titagarh, Raniganj and Kakinada. In Karnataka the paper mills are located at Dandeli, Bhadravathi, Mandya etc. Nepanagar in Madhya Pradesh is an important producer of newsprint. The production of paper in India is not sufficient to m eet the demand, so large quantities of paper are imported from other countries. MINERAL- BASED INDUSTRIES: The important mineral-based industries of India are iron and steel, heavy engineering and machinery, machine tools,transport equipment, chemicals, chemical fertilizers and cement industries. Iron and steel industry: Indians knew the art of smelting iron ore since early times. Modern steel industry was first started at Kulti in West Bengal in 1874. But the real beginning of Iron and Steel industry was made in 1907 at Jamshedpur in Bihar (present Jharkhand) by the Tatas, called Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO). Again in 1919 a steel plant was set up at Burnpur in West Bengal called Indian Iron and Steel Company (ISCO) and at Bhadravathi in Karnataka in 1923 called Mysore Iron and Steel Company (MISCO). Now it is called Vishweswaraiah Iron and Steel Company (VISCO). After Independence during the Second Five Year Plan period, three big Iron and Steel plants were  established at Bhilai in Madhya Pradesh (now in Chhattisgarh) Rourkela in Orissa and Durgapur in West Bengal. During the Third Five Year Plan, a very big steel plant was established at Bokaro in Bihar ( now in Jharkhand). The fourth five year plan proposed to start three more steel plants at Salem, Vijayanagar and Vishakhapatnam. The Salem and Vishakhapatnam steel plants have started production but Vijayanagar steel plant was entrusted to the private sector and production is in the beginning stage. Tata Iron and Steel Company and Vijayanagar steel plant are under the private sector. The others are under the public sector. To encourage and extend iron and steel industry under both private and public sectors, Steel Authority of India was established in 1973. All the raw materials required for iron and steel industry like iron ore, manganese, limestone and coal are bulky and weight-losing. So this industry is located near the regions where the raw materials are found in abundance. The finished products are also heavy and need good transport system for their distribution. Iron and steel industry is concentrated around the Chotanagpur plateau which is rich in most of the raw materials required and therefor e Chotanagpur plateau is called the Rhur of India. (Rhur region in Germany is noted for iron and steel industry). India exports a large quantity of steel and cast iron to Britain, the U.S.A and Japan. Engineering Industry: There was a time when we were dependent on other countries for various types of engineering goods. Since Independence great progress has been achieved in this field and now we manufacture machinery required to manufacture goods. A heavy engineering plant is established at Ranchi in Jharkhand, which manufactures various machines required by us and also machinery for export. Hindustan Machine Tools at Bangalore manufactures a wide variety of machine tools and tractors. Machines required to manufacture cement and chemicals are manufactured at Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. Heavy electrical equipment industry: India produces many types of electrical equipment. Heavy electrical motors, transformers, water wheels, electric fans etc., are manufactured at Bhopal, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Tiruchinapalli and otherplaces. Bharat Heavy  Electricals Limited (BHEL) has set up its plants at differentplaces. One such plant is in Bangalore. Transport and equipment Industry: India has made good progress in this industry also. It is engaged in the production of automobiles, railway engines, railway coaches, railway wheels and axles and ships. Chittaranjan in West Bengal manufactures electrical and diesel locomotives, Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh produces diesel locomotives, Perambur near Chennai produces railway coaches. Mumbai, Kolkata, Kochi, Vishakahpatnam and Marmagoa are the major ship building centres. Aircraft industry has been developed at Bangalore, Hyderabad and Kanpur. Maruthi Udyog near Delhi produces motor cars. Kolkata(West Bengal), Jamshedpur(Jharkhand), Hosur in Tamllnadu (Leyland) and Bangalore in Karnataka (Volvo) are noted for the manufacture of motor vehicles. The railway wheel and axle plant is at Yelhanka near Bangalore. Chemical Industry: Many chemicals are required for the production of rayon, rubber, paper, glass, soap, chemical fertilizers and insecticides. Except for sulphur, the other raw materials are available in India for the production of chemicals. After Independence great progress has been made in this direction. At present, there are more than three hundred chemical factories spread all over India. Mumbai, Kolkata, Kanpur, Bangalore, Chennai and Ahmedabad are the important centres of this industry. Sulphuric acid, caustic soda, soda ash, bleaching powder and soaps are produced in our country. Chemical fertilizer industry: Chemical fertilizers are very essential to improve the fertility of the soil and to increase the production in agriculture. India being a predominantly an agricultural nation, production of chemical fertilizers is necessary. Complex fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate and nitrates are produced in India. The bi-products of coal, and oil refineries are used as raw materials in this industry. Now natural gas is also used as a raw material. The first chemical fertilizer factory in India was started at Belagola near Mysore (Mysore fertilizers). The next factory was started at Travancore (Alwaye) in Kerala called Fertilizer and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACTS).  Now there are more than one hundred fertilizer factories under both public and private sectors. Some of the important fertilizer factories under the public sector are at Sindri (Jharkhand), Nangal (Punjab), Trombay (Maharashtra), Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh). Rourkela (Orissa), Neyveli (Tamilnadu), Durgapur (West Bengal), Koch i (Kerala) and Mangalore (Karnataka). Though the production of fertilizers has increased over the past few years, still it is not sufficient and we import fertilizers from other countries. Cement Industry: Cement is the most essential commodity for construction work after iron and steel. For the construction of buildings, roads, river valley projects, bridges etc., cement is very necessary along with iron. That is why the consumption of cement is the index for the rate of development of a country. The first cement factory was set up at Chennai in 1904. It used seashells as raw material. Now limestone, coal and gypsum are the main raw materials. As the raw materials are heavy, the cement factories are generally located close to the source of raw materials. Cement factories are located all over India, because the raw materials are available throughout the country. There are about 150 cement factories in India. Most of the cement factories are in Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Most of the factories are under the private sector. In Karnataka, Associated Cement Company near Gulbarga, Mysore Cement Company in Bhadravathi, Diamond Cement fa ctory at Ammasandra near Tumkur are important. India is self sufficient in cement production. We also export cement to Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Iran etc. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: You have already studied that India has made industrial progress. This development has resulted in some good and bad effects. Good effects: Industrialisation has changed India into a developing nation and to-day India is one of the ten industrially advanced nations of the World. Industrialisation has increased production through the utilization of unused natural resources. It has reduced to some extent the population that  would have been dependent on agriculture. The industrial centres have become the centres of education, culture and trade. Industrialisation has enabled us to become selfreliantwith regard to many goods for which we were depending on other countries earlier. It has affected our foreign trade also and we are able to export many goods to other countries. Import of many goods has been stopped or reduced. The National Income and per capita income has increased. We have achieved development in the field of technology also. There is great progress in the field of Banking, Transport and Communication and Insurance. The foreign countries are attracted and they are investing their capital in our industries. The non-resident Indians are also investing capital and hence the investment of capital has considerably increased. Bad effects: The industrial centres attract population from rural areas and the density of population has increased in industrial centres. Lack of housing facilities has created many slums. The slum dwellers are suffering from lack of healthfacilities, housing, sanitation and water. The slums have become the centres of many anti-social activities. Recently in almost all the states, the Slum Development Boards have been set up to improve the conditions of slum dwellers. Excessive use of Technology and Computers in industries, has resulted in the removal of workers and this has become a big problem. There is a fear that the foreign capital investment may result in the economic exploitation of the country